Microbial Hazards in Bagged Salads: Suitable Control measures and Methods to Monitor Their Presence

INTRODUCTION

Bagged salads or Ready-to-eat (RTE) salads can contain a variety of food stuffs, ranging from leafy greens to seeds. According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) RTE salads fall under the category ‘composite foods, multi-ingredient foods and other foods,’ and specifically in the sub-category, ‘mixed foods.’ This essay focuses on bagged salads containing minimally processed RTE salads of non-animal origin.

The rise in popularity of bagged salads in the 1990s, initiated by Fresh Express, Inc. in the United States (US), has led to the largest market size in North America, with rapid growth in the Asia Pacific region 1. Bagged salads, known for their convenience and freshness, undergo a complex supply chain involving diverse ingredients sourced from various fields, each presenting different microbial hazards. This complexity raises challenges in contaminant identification and traceability, potentially contributing to outbreak cases. The absence of a kill step, such as thermal treatment, further emphasizes the importance of microbial safety in ensuring freshness and nutritional value.

Bagged salads have been associated with outbreaks, particularly in the US. Notable cases include a 2006 outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in spinach and a recent 2022 outbreak of Salmonella Senftenberg linked to cherry-like tomatoes 2,3. Most outbreaks due to Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes gain higher attention because of the severity of the illness and cases of deaths. This essay focuses on these three microbiological hazards, even though fresh produce in bagged salads can host a range of other pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes), virus (e.g. Norovirus), and parasites (e.g. Cryptosporidium).

MICROBIOLOGICAL HAZARDS 

Enteric bacteria face a lot of hurdles to survive on the plant leafy surface. Factors like geography, ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, temperature, relative humidity, availability of moisture, availability of nutrients, cuticle damage, leaf age, epiphytic microbes, phytopathogenic microbes, plant species, etc. influence the survival and growth of enteric bacteria on the plant leaf surface. Moreover, these enteric bacteria have a vast array of cell surface moieties (exocellular polysaccharide, cell surface charge, presence/absence of fimbriae, and hydrophobicity) that influence the interaction or attachment to the plant tissue 2, 3.

E. coli outbreaks linked to fresh produce are more prevalent in the US than in the EU. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), particularly the O157 serogroup, accounted for 92% of STEC cases in foodborne outbreaks between 1998 and 2013. Other implicated serogroups during this period were O26 (4%), O145 (3%), and O121 (1%) 4. A notable 2011 outbreak in Germany, associated with sprouts, involved E. coli O104:H4, resulting in 3816 cases and 54 fatalities 5. Sprouts and lettuce are commonly identified as vehicles for E. coli contamination. Although cattle are considered the primary reservoir of E. coli O157:H7, its presence extends to the faeces of various domestic and wild animals and birds. The widespread global contamination of leafy greens with E. coli O157:H7 lacks specific gene attributions. Studies suggest that curli fibres may not play a role in the attachment of E. coli O157:H7 to lettuce 2. But, use of curli, a downward shift in metabolism, and the suppression of biofilm formation are proposed causes for the interaction of E. coli O157:H7 on undamaged lettuce 6.

Salmonella enterica, has over 2500 serovars. The ability of each serovar to colonize specific plant species varies, with S. Tennessee showing a stronger adherence to lettuce than S. Negev. At the cultivar level, S. Typhimurium exhibits better adhesion to the lettuce cultivar "Nelly" compared to "Cancan" 4. Salmonella may enter plants through cuts in tissues, uptake by root systems, and surface contamination of flowering plants, subsequently becoming trapped during fruit or vegetable embryogenesis. Salmonella can adhere to and be internalized by plant surfaces. The contamination by Salmonella and L. monocytogenes via roots is significantly greater than direct infection on leaves. Once present in soil, Salmonella and Listeria can remain viable for extended periods. Analysis of manure-fertilized soil and contaminated water revealed Salmonella spp. presence 161 days after cultivating lettuce and 231 days after salsa cultivation 7.

Listeria monocytogenes, with the highest fatality rate among vulnerable populations, is associated with fewer outbreaks compared to E. coli and Salmonella. Serotype 4b is a major contributor to human listeriosis cases, responsible for outbreaks like the 32 cases reported in Switzerland from 2013 to 2014 4. Pre-harvest, temperature affects L. monocytogenes' attachment moieties 8. Post-harvest, L. monocytogenes adapts to slow growth under refrigeration, with refrigeration stress, virulence gene expression is potentially induced. Pioneer bacterial cells, like Pseudomonas fluorescens, form biofilms in plants, creating a favourable environment for L. monocytogenes proliferation. Also, it can penetrate plant tissues and be present within stomata, potentially reaching deeper intracellular spaces in leaf tissue 7.

SOURCE, SPREAD, AND CONTROL OF CONTAMINATION 

Fresh herbs and salad leaves are susceptible to contamination from various sources throughout their lifecycle. These sources include irrigation or pesticide application with contaminated water, the use of sewage as fertilizer, washing crops with contaminated water post-harvest, contact with animals, contaminated equipment, distribution-related factors, and cross-contamination during food preparation, including handling by infected food handlers. The potential for contamination and microbial proliferation exists during cultivation, harvest, post-harvest handling, processing, storage, distribution, or consumer handling of leafy vegetables.

Pre-harvest control measures 

Interventions to control microbiological hazards in soil are typically applied at the start of a production cycle. UV treatment or filtration-based systems with zero-valent iron sand have demonstrated up to 6 log reduction in bacterial pathogen populations in irrigation water. Within the first 4 weeks of the growing cycle electrostatic application of lactic acid bacteria has demonstrated nearly 3-log reduction in E. coli O157:H7. Applied one day prior to harvest, acetic acid spray treatment impacts the prevalence of pathogens like E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella on leaf lettuce, spinach, or cabbage. Spinach plants on treatment with Bacillus spp. has shown a 1-log reduction in Salmonella. A widely practiced treatment for animal fertilizers, composting has been effective in reducing the transfer of E. coli from amended soil to growing lettuce plants. Physical barriers such as plastic mulch to prevent direct contact between soil and edible portions provides an additional layer of control 9. By amending the leaves with a carbon source that is metabolized by spinach epiphytic bacteria but not by E.coli O157:H7, it may be possible to decrease populations of E. coli O157:H7. However, some epiphytes have no effect and some even promote the persistence of enteric pathogens on the phyllosphere, likely because these did not compete for the same carbon sources as E. coli O157:H7 10.

Post-harvest control measures 

Numerous Natural antimicrobial Compounds (NACs) are under consideration for interventions against foodborne pathogens during or after minimal processing of fruits and vegetables. Lab-scale studies show that NACs can inactivate enteric bacterial foodborne pathogens at various stages of processing and on various leafy vegetables. However, there is variability in efficacy reported in different studies and on diverse commodities. Challenges include a lack of data on antiviral or antiparasitic effects, as well as solubility issues, necessitating means to improve functionality. Realistic and practical data on their impact on product quality in commercial processes and distribution channels are lacking 9. The use of generally recognized as safe (GRAS) additives, such as organic acids, is considered an alternative to control the multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms during food processing 7.

Irradiation by gamma ray, electron beam, or X-ray consistently reduces bacterial foodborne pathogens by 5–6 log in leafy vegetables without compromising the quality. The FDA approves irradiation of leafy vegetables at doses up to 1 kGy 9. However, the continued use of UV-C radiation can cause changes in colour 7.

Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) is widely used to improve the shelf-life, sensory, appearance, and quality of minimally processed leafy vegetables, like oxidative browning of lettuce. However, it may promote the proliferation of pathogenic, facultative anaerobic bacteria, such as L. monocytogenes and E. coli O157: H7. Salmonella also has shown to persist high CO2. Exposure to antimicrobials in the gas phase, such as 10 percent hydrogen peroxide treatment, has shown reductions in bacterial populations on lettuce 7,9. Sanitizers, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and peracetic acid, are commonly added to processing tanks to reduce microbial loads. However, their efficacy against bacteria attached to vegetable surfaces is limited, achieving only a 9.99% reduction instead of the desired 99.999%. Despite the widespread use of chlorine in processing plants, its FDA- approved limits may not be sufficient to eliminate important pathogens like Salmonella.

Alternative sanitizers, such as chlorine dioxide and peracetic acid, are being explored. The persistence of Salmonella and L. monocytogenes after appropriate sanitizer use may beattributed to greater tolerance, resistance to sublethal methods, or enhanced adhesion to surfaces. Enteric pathogens, including E. coli and Salmonella, can survive on fruit or vegetable surfaces, particularly in micro-holes or damaged areas. Disinfection process struggles to reduce strongly adherent biofilms by more than one logarithmic cycle. In a study example, shredded lettuce samples inoculated with L. monocytogenes exhibited varied responses to different washing conditions, concluding that washing using heated chlorinated water (47°C) favoured microbial growth in the samples stored at 10°C unlike cold water (4°C) 7.

Combining different agents, such as peracetic acid, neutral electrolyzed water, and UV-C radiation, can be effective in extending the shelf-life of vegetables. Ultrasound techniques, when combined with organic acids, have shown synergistic effect in reducing microbial load in different agricultural products 7.

Programmes such as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) in domestic kitchens and a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan in the industry monitors and minimizes the occurrence of foodborne disease outbreaks 7. Emerging tools, such as electrochemical sensors, offer real-time information on microbiological risks, potentially integrating into industrial production lines. The sensors demonstrated efficient detection of bacterial contaminations in leafy green salads, even at low concentrations 11.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Food Waste Problem of a Retail Giant in India

How does a Retail Giant in India tackle the Food Waste problem? How transparent are they about it to the public they serve? What transformative approach can they take to improve their CSR? Curious about it just as me? Check here: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in the Food Waste Problem of a Retail Giant in India

Problem statement: Lack of Food Waste Measurement

Conflicts and Paradoxes in the Food Waste Problem

 What are the conflicts or paradoxes in the food waste problem and why these conflicts or paradoxes need to be resolved before being able to even consider the technical food waste problem?

Food Supply Chain: Present Issues and Solutions that could Lead to a Not-so-distant Future.

INTRODUCTION

When Nobel Peace Prize laureate, Norman Borlaug, said in his Nobel lecture, “Civilization as it is known today could not have evolved, nor can it survive, without an adequate food supply” (Borlaug, 1970), he was emphasising on the importance food has been playing in human survival from the very beginning of human evolution. Food, the source of energy for humans, is obviously the most crucial element for human survival. In the past, when humans hunted and gathered their food, food shortages must have been prevalent. This may have led to limited human population growth. But with the advent of agriculture, including the domestication of animals, humans were able to stabilise the food supply to an extent and make a lifestyle switch from nomadic to permanent settlements as agriculturalists no longer needed constant motion in search of food. Yet still, challenges like natural disasters, disease outbreaks, pest infestations, etc. caused famines. With time, agriculture grew, and surplus food produced were preserved for later consumption. Ever since, the food system has been further changed by industrialisation, urbanisation, and globalization, today, the food system is highly complex and diverse. It includes everything from very short supply chains like subsistence farming, and intricate global supply chain networks by multinational companies. With the latter being more widespread than the former (Hueston & McLeod, 2012, p. 192).

To know the level of complexity in the current food supply chain, the case of burgers can be considered. Burgers due to its convenience to make and eat, exceptional taste from its multiple layers and low-cost, has become a staple in busy urban lifestyle (Smith, 2008, p. 4). But burgers travel a long way before anyone gets a bite of it. “Each cheeseburger includes more than 50 ingredients sourced from countries in every continent of the world except the Arctic” (Hueston & McLeod, 2012, p. 189). Figures 1 shows a flow diagram of the path each element in a cheeseburger passes through, figure 2 shows the list of ingredients in a cheeseburger, and figure 3 shows the various countries from where the ingredients were sourced.

This emphasises what Norman Borlaug mentioned in his Nobel lecture, “Since the urbanites have lost their contact with the soil, they take food for granted and fail to appreciate the tremendous efficiency of their farmers and ranchers, who, although constituting only five percent of the labour force in a country such as the United States, produce more than enough food for their nation.” (Borlaug, 1970). But also, there has been a rise in trend of people eating out even the most basic food. In the US, 44% of all the food spending in 2018 was on food away from home (Paulin, 2020). Thus, there is a growing dependence of humans on these long and complex food supply chain to satisfy their food requirements, and the Food Supply Chain Management (FSCM) must transform to sustain the hunger, health, and harmony of the current and future population.

 

IMAGE SOURCE: Heuston, W., & McLeod, A. (2012). OVERVIEW OF THE GLOBAL FOOD SYSTEM: CHANGES OVER TIME/SPACE AND LESSONS FOR FUTURE FOOD SAFETY. Retrieved from National Library of Medicine: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114491/

ARGUMENTATION AND EVALUATION

The more complex the food supply chain is the more complex the problems in the system will be. Since the current food system involves dynamic and interconnected subsystems, it is difficult to predict the property of the whole system considering just the individual subsystems or their parts. A small deviation in the system could have immense, slight or no impact on the food supply (Hueston & McLeod, 2012, p. 194). Also, the various stakeholders impacted by this may remain unknown.

For example, in the UK, following Brexit, fast food giants like McDonald’s and Nando’s suffered insufficient quantities of materials like milkshakes and peri peri chicken respectively. Nando’s had to close 45 of its UK restaurants due to shortages in its signature chicken. The main reason for this was shortage of truck drivers. Multiple factors such as Brexit, COVID-19 and low income were some of the reasons for the labour shortage showcasing domino effect (Riley, 2021).

The current food supply chain even though is more efficient and highly interconnected, it makes individual systems more sensitive to stress and less resilient. In the wake of unpredictable climate disasters, and pandemics (Connolly, 2021), the food supply chain might collapse due to lack of proper connection between the subsystems (Hueston & McLeod, 2012, p. 195).

Big food retailers and services follow Just-In-Time (JIT) supply chain where instead of stockpiling food supplies in the warehouse, they make agreements with their suppliers and use real-time data on usage and inventories to customize shipment of only those food products that are needed. In many cities, perishables like milk and eggs stay in the retail outlet shelves only for a day or two. Even though this trend maximizes efficiency and cost savings, such strategies fail in stressful times like COVID-19 when lockdowns halted transportation, and supply and demand was volatile (What is the Just-In-Time supply chain strategy?, n.d.). JIT supply chain also puts a lot of pressure on the suppliers like farmers as the yield depends on many uncertain factors especially with the wake of climate change. But, due to the perishable nature of most food products, JIT is suitable. Post pandemic many future-looking companies have adopted Just-In-Case (JIC) supply chains where larger stocks are kept in the inventory in advance (What is the Just-In-Time supply chain strategy?, n.d.). 

For example, the ingredient flow of McDonald chains in India were temporarily affected by the Ukraine Russia war. A popular dish, filet-o-fish burger was taken out of the menu after the shipments of Alaska pollock fish from the Bering Sea was hit (Sarkar, 2022). Such incidents are usually overcome by introducing multi-supplier model to avoid risks associated with dependency on single supplier.

Another problem that arises when food supply chains become complex is food fraud and the resulting loss of consumer trust. The inability to trace the journey of food effectively has led to fraudsters utilising this opportunity to gain monetary benefits. In fact, it is a global business exceeding 50 billion dollars annually (FSNS, 2020). For example, in the case of the horse meat scandal that came to light in 2013, the traders on trial made 30-40 % profits through fraudulent labelling. A mixture of horse meat and beef was sold labelled as 100% beef to consumers and legitimate businesses. This was a cross border fraudulent scheme that took advantage of the increasingly globalised food supply chain, which means lack of traceability, a fragmented system, and high complexity in finding the perpetrators. For instance, the companies involved knowingly or unknowingly in this case were from different stages of the supply chain spread across Europe, like Ireland, England, Italy, and Poland, with the investigators having to follow a very long and tangled trail (Lawrence, 2017).

Blockchain technology is a possible solution for securing the food supply chain from food fraud. Clearing blind spots in the complex supply chains, enhancing outdated practices, connecting the fragmented subsystems, and regaining customer trust can be achieved by adopting blockchain technology. This technology is basically a shared digital ledger, where data is stored in a decentralised and immutable manner eliminating opportunities for food fraud. With blockchain technology businesses and consumers can ensure the authenticity of their raw materials and packaged goods, increases visibility, and share certifications, registrations, and inspections to establish accountability. In the future, blockchain technology with IoT can be used by all supply chain actors for better connection, real-time data sharing, etc (Focus on food fraud, n.d.).

The food supply has followed a linear model from the mid-20th century. Several factors like the rise in industrial and economic development, globalization, decline in manufacturing cost, and growth of purchasing power of consumers, have led to a trend of frequent purchase, use and disposal of goods, or in short, the take-make-dispose model. This has led to significant increase in demand for natural resources, waste generation, carbon emissions, biodiversity loss, etc. Demand for natural resources has increased evermore due to the growing population as well. Thus, there is a dire need to redesign the food supply chain to a circular model where reducing, reusing, recycling, repurposing, repairing, refurbishing, and upcycling waste is practiced. There are several strategies to adopt circular economy. One way is to development of a symbiotic relationship between partners such that the waste from one is the raw material for another.

For example, McDonalds in the Netherlands, collaborated vertically with their key supply chain partner, HAVI, and Neste, the world’s leading provider of renewable diesel, to recycle used cooking oil from French Fries into Neste MY Renewable Diesel. This diesel is used by HAVI’s trucks that deliver products to McDonald’s restaurants, thus closing the loop (Editors, 2020) (Neste, 2021).

IMAGE SOURCE: Neste. (2021, January 16). Fries to miles – circularity partnership. Retrieved from Neste: https://journeytozerostories.neste.com/circular-economy/fries-miles-circularity-partnership 

Unlike textiles, plastics and other materials, food is intended to be consumed completely. Thus, in a circular food supply chain, it is crucial to prevent food waste. A seemingly simple way to do this is to trade directly with farmers. A restaurant in London named Silo, has adopted the concept of zero waste and is known for being the first restaurant to do so. They cut out the need for a bin by changing their supply chain. They source unprocessed whole foods directly from local farmers, in reusable or completely biodegradable containers. Processing, like milling flour, is done by the restaurant themselves, and the resulting waste is composted. Most of the furniture, decorations and cutleries are made from recycled materials. Moreover, their menus are not constant and change as they try to upcycle any food waste produced (TEDx, 2018), (Silo, n.d.). 

Food waste can also be prevented in the typical industrial food systems with the use of technology. For example, Neighbourly is a platform that connects food donors and food recipients. Food donors, like businesses can add donations along with location and expiry date, which can be accepted online by project teams like charities, and later collected (Neighbourly, 2015). Another solution for kitchens is to use software like Leanpath, which is an automated food waste tracking technology, that offers data-collection tools, cloud-based analytics, and expert coaching (Leanpath, n.d.) (Kor, Prabhu, & Esposito, 2017, p. 5).  

One of the specific characteristics observed increasingly in the food supply chain of EU is consolidation. Consolidation is the relatively high degree of concentration of some food supply chain actors such as food processing industries and retailers. In most EU Member States, five largest retail sections account for over 50% of the market. This could account for benefits like higher efficiency, economies of scale and scope, lower prices, and strong brands that signals better quality. But to avail these benefits vigilant competition policy must exist otherwise negative side-effects like anti-competitive agreements or abuses of dominant positions might arise. Consolidation also makes it hard for new entrants, and weaker competition can lead to higher prices. Also, there is a growing market share of discounters in EU which is pressurising other retailers to focus on price rather than other dimensions of the product. This again limits the entry of new businesses, even those that focus on sustainability, fair trade, quality, etc (Bukeviciute, Dierx, & Ilzkovitz, 2009, p. 21). 

Sustainability is booming in the food industry especially due to the rise in awareness about the contribution of the food system in the GHG emissions and the impact it has on climate change. There is also increasing interests among consumers for eco-friendly products and services, but they are reluctant to pay for them. An article by Prof. Katherine White and others, in 2019 suggests five approaches to tackle this issue in all business categories not specific to food. They are, using social influence, shaping good habits, leveraging the domino effect, deciding whether to talk to heart or the brain, and favouring experiences over ownership. For example, alternative protein food products can be promoted by a  combination of social influence and leveraging the domino effect. The buffets at public events can make vegan options as the norm and thus encourage people to try out convincing meat alternatives which can lead to a snowball effect due to which the consumers may expand their alternative protein choices. Loss aversion is also used by alternative protein companies where they communicate to the consumers what’s at stake (White, Hardisty, & Habib, 2019, p. 127).

SUMMARY

The complex, globalised nature of food supply chain is the cause of many issues such as lack of traceability, food fraud, supply and demand volatility, fragmentation of subsystems, lack of resilience, etc. Also, the linear nature of the typical food supply chain has led to a take-make- dispose model, which has caused natural resource exploitation, biodiversity loss, waste generation, carbon emissions, etc. The current food supply chain is also facing consolidation especially in the retail sector that benefits the food system by reducing food prices and increasing efficiency. But negative side-effects could arise due to weak competition like anti- competitive agreements or abuses of dominant positions, which could in turn lead to high food prices, lack of new innovators, etc. But advancing technologies, consumer awareness, circular and short supply chains that do not compromise efficiency and economy will help the future of the food supply chain to be sustainable in social, economic, and environmental aspects.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Heuston, W., & McLeod, A. (2012). OVERVIEW OF THE GLOBAL FOOD SYSTEM: CHANGES OVER TIME/SPACE AND LESSONS FOR FUTURE FOOD SAFETY. Retrieved from National Library of Medicine: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114491/

Borlaug, N. (1970, December 11). Nobel Lecture. Retrieved from The Nobel Prize: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1970/borlaug/lecture/

Paulin, G. D. (2020, April). Meal Appeal: Patterns of Expenditures on Food away from Home. Retrieved from U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS: https://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2020/food-away-from-home/home.htm

Hueston, W., & McLeod, A. (2012). Improving Food Safety Through a One Health Approach: Workshop Summary. Overview of the Global Food System: Changes over Time/Space and Lessons for Future Food Safety National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2012. Improving Food Safety Through a One Health Approach: Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: Th, 189. Retrieved from NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS: https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/13423/chapter/1

Smith, A. F. (2008). Hamburger A Global History. Reaktion Books.

Connolly, P. M. (2021, December 16). Q&A: Future pandemics are inevitable, but we can reduce the risk. (J. Smith, Interviewer)

What is the Just-In-Time supply chain strategy? (n.d.). Retrieved June 2023, from GEP: https://www.gep.com/knowledge-bank/glossary/what-is-just-in-time-supply-chain- strategy

Sarkar, J. (2022, May 21). Filet-o-fish off McD menu as war hits ingredient flow. Retrieved from Times of India: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india- business/filet-o-fish-off-mcd-menu-as-war-hits-ingredient- flow/articleshow/91699956.cms

Riley, C. (2021, August 24). McDonald’s has run out of milkshakes in the UK. Retrieved from CNN business: https://edition.cnn.com/2021/08/24/business/mcdonalds-milkshake- shortage- uk/index.html#:~:text=McDonald's%20has%20been%20forced%20to,pandemic%20c ontinue%20to%20slam%20companies.

Lawrence, F. (2017, July 26). Horsemeat trial shines light on key part of international fraud. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/uk- news/2017/jul/26/horsemeat-trial-shines-light-international-fraud

FSNS. (2020, January 31). An Update On Food Fraud. Retrieved from FSNS: https://fsns.com/an-update-on-food-fraud/

Focus on food fraud. (n.d.). Retrieved from IBM: https://www.ibm.com/downloads/cas/YDKZAB6O

Editors, M. (2020, July 22). Turning used cooking oil into fuel. Retrieved from McDonald's: https://corporate.mcdonalds.com/corpmcd/our-stories/article/cookingoil-to- fuel.html#:~:text=This%20project%20will%20enable%20us,oil%20into%20renewable %20biodiesel%20oil.

Neste. (2021, January 16). Fries to miles – circularity partnership. Retrieved from Neste: https://journeytozerostories.neste.com/circular-economy/fries-miles-circularity- partnership

Silo. (n.d.). Zero Waste. Retrieved June 2023, from Silo: https://silolondon.com/story/ Neighbourly. (2015, October 6). Introducing neighbourly Food. Retrieved from Neighbourly:

https://www.neighbourly.com/blog/introducing-neighbourly-food-2 Leanpath. (n.d.). About Leanpath. Retrieved from Leanpath:

https://www.leanpath.com/about/
Kor, Y. Y., Prabhu, J., & Esposito, M. (2017, December 19). How Large Food Retailers Can Help

Solve the Food Waste Crisis. Retrieved from Harvard Business Review: https://hbr.org/ Bukeviciute, L., Dierx, A., & Ilzkovitz, F. (2009, May). The functioning of the food supply chain

and its effect on food prices in the European Union. Retrieved from European Economy: https://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/pages/publication15234_en.pdf

White, K., Hardisty, D. J., & Habib, R. (2019, July-August). The Elusive Green Consumer. Retrieved from Harvard Business Review: https://hbr.org/

TEDx, T. (2018). Waste is a failure of the imagination | DOUGLAS MCMASTER | TEDxISM. Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwHut5N7Rr0 

Amul gold UHT Milk Logistics: Food Systems Logistics

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the project is to take a deeper look into the whole supply chain activities of the final product Amul gold UHT milk, manufactured by Amul dairy, from farm to fork. We will explore the intricate web of activities starting from livestock rearing to distribution channels that enable the safe and quality products to reach the retail outlets and consumers’ home. Most of the information for this project was obtained from Amul TV, the YouTube channel of Amul1.

COMPANY PRESENTATION

Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF) popularly known as Amul dairy after one of its brand names, is India's largest food products marketing organization with a total brand turnover of US$ 6.2 billion (2021-22) [1]. Its daily milk procurement is approx. 25 million lit per day from 18,600 village milk cooperative societies, 18 member unions covering 33 districts and 3.6 million milk producer members [2]. It is the apex organization of the Dairy cooperatives of Gujarat [2].

GCMMF was founded in pre-independence era in India, as a response to the exploitation of small dairy farmers by traders and agents, especially the monopoly set up by a company called Polson dairy. Following the suggestion of the freedom fighter Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the farmers formed cooperatives and resolved not to provide Polson with any more milk. Milk collection was decentralised, as most producers were marginal farmers who could deliver, at most, 1–2 litres of milk per day. Within 2 years’ time they began pasteurising the collected milk and sold them to consumers in Bombay (now Mumbai) [2].

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

SUPPLY VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS

The Amul model is a three tiered structure. The member milk producers give their milk to village dairy cooperative society, from where it goes to district milk cooperative union. Then the milk goes to state cooperative milk marketing federation. And finally it reaches the consumers.

4.1. Inbound logistics

4.1.1. Purchase of raw materials

Amul collects milk every day from its 3.6 million milk producers spread across thousands of villages in India. Amul procures more than 20 million litres of milk every day [7]. Most of its milk are from small farmers with one to two buffaloes or landless labourers deriving subsistence income from selling few litres of milk to the village cooperative societies. But in the recent times this picture of the cooperative exclusively for the poor producers has been undergoing a subtle change. These farmers are considered by Amul as ‘large’ and they own herd sizes from 10 to more than 100 cows or buffaloes. These large farmers who approach dairying more as a business than subsistence activity, are reckoned to account for about 5 lakh litres a day [6].

The milk comes from cows, mostly Holstein-Friesian (HF) crossbred cows, and buffaloes. Because of the union, the member farmers need to only take care of the production of milk, and there are no worries of price fluctuations and an there is an existence of assured market. As of 2014, roughly three fourths of the consumers price go to the farmers [8]. Amul also provides veterinary doctor services at farm level. Milking used to be done by hand but many initiatives like 50% subsidies for milking machine has made a significant transition to milking machines [6].

The milk is carried by the farmers to their local collection point where they wait in long lines for their turn to handover the milk. The society collects milk twice every day. Before collection, a sample of each member’s milk can is immediately tested for its quality especially milk fat percentage using an electronic milko-tester that measures the fat percentage in the milk. According to the system, cow milk containing 3.5% fat will be paid at half the rate of buffalo milk containing 7% fat even though the solids-not-fat content of both the milk is nearly the same [10]. All the village dairy cooperatives are accredited with ISO 9001:2000.

After confirming the quality of the milk, the milk is poured into cans through a filter to remove any physical contaminants and then pumped into bulk milk coolers where it is store under 4℃. The member farmers will be given their price for their milk directly to their registered bank account. Amul has created a mobile app for the farmers. Once they give their milk, a message comes to their phones giving information about the volume of the milk supplied, the fat content, solids not fat content, and the money earned [11].

In fact, Amul has created mobile applications available for the village dairy cooperative societies and the district milk cooperative union and employees as well. This was made possible with PROMPT equipment Pvt. Ltd., which created these applications and other systems to forge an automatic milk collection system for Amul [17], [18].

Chilled milk is then pumped into an insulated tanker under controlled temperature. Each collection centres or society is also equipped with automatic weighing machine for weighing of milk with data processing facilities and the entire operation is electronically captured with member-id [9]. These co-operative societies have elected board which put forward their own actions to promote dairy and keep it under check. The Amul model of milk collection eliminates middle-persons.

The milk from the co-operative societies is transported to Amul Dairy Plant once a day through road milk tankers that keep milk under 4℃. These insulated tankers carry milk from three to four societies to achieve economy in transportation. These tankers have a tamper proof seal to prevent unauthorised access. Geo-remote sensor-based vehicle tracking system is used to efficiently transport milk [9].

4.1.2. Warehousing of raw materials and inventory control

Milk is a very perishable commodity and thus cannot be kept in the storage for long. The milk is stored in the societies after collection in bulk chillers below 4℃. This temperature is maintained even during transport where the milk is kept in insulated tankers. 

4.2 Production logistics

4.2.1 Manufacturing

Once the tankers reach the Amul plant, the vehicles are identified using the vehicle tracking system. Amul plants are spread across 10 states in India, mostly towards the northern end. At the milk receiving dock, a trained factory supervisor welcomes the tamper proof sealed milk truck. Milk samples are taken from each tank immediately and analysed for quality parameters in a sophisticated lab. A plunger is used to mix the milk thoroughly, also the sampling tool is sanitised in bromine solution before sampling.

Amul is accredited with certification of ISO 2200:2005 & ISO 9001 for its operations and plants [9].The quality control and quality assurance department of Amul ensures the quality of its products by performing organoleptic test, temperature, etc. in the Raw Milk Reception Dock (RMRD), Clot On Boiling (COB) test, pH, alkaline phosphatase test, titrable acidity, etc. in dairy laboratory. The results of each sample are recorded in the computer automatically and is communicated to the society from where the milk has come. After getting conformation from the quality control department the milk is pumped from the tankers to raw milk storage silos in the milk unloading station. The milk is stored in the silos under 4℃.

Some of the operations undertaken by the quality control and assurance department are as follows:

a) Performing organoleptic tests of incoming raw milk

b) Chemical and microbial analysis of incoming raw milk

c) Checking the quality of milk at processing stage and after processing

d) Conducting swab tests to ensure sterility of food contact surfaces.

e) Conducting tests to confirm the quality of dairy products.

g) Checking the quality of incoming packing materials for milk and its products.

h) Checking for the suitability of water for use in dairy industry.

Milk then undergoes a pre-treatment. It undergoes bactofugation to remove bacteria and foreign material impurities. After filtration milk goes for pasteurisation. Milk is pasteurised for 15 seconds at 72.5℃. Then it is instantly chilled. This kills almost all pathogenic bacteria in the raw milk. The milk for UHT process is then stored in storage tanks under 4℃ within the plant [7].

UHT (Ultra High Temperature) is a process where milk is heated very quickly to 135- 140℃, held at this temperature for 3-4 s. Then cooled down to around 20-30℃. This quick heating and cooling kills virtually all the bacteria in the milk. Out of the two types of UHT treatment methods, direct and indirect. Amul employs indirect heating where the milk is heated using plate heat exchangers.

After UHT treatment in the aseptic packaging section sourced from Tetra Pack, the milk is then standardised to contain minimum of 4.5% fat and Solids Not Fat (SNF) of minimum 8.5%. Homogenisation decreases the size and the total surface area of fat globules in the milk. This reduces the tendency of milk to form a creamy layer at the surface and in contact with the container. In the year 2022-23, Amul produced 2502 lakh litres of milk [12].

4.2.2 Product packaging

Amul has in house plant for various packaging requirements. Pasteurised milk that is stored in silos are sent to the aseptic packing section. The milk is now UHT (Ultra High Technology) treated. Amul’s APS (Aseptic Packaging System) has the capacity to pack 8 lack litres of milk per day.

Aseptic packaging material has 6 layers; 1) polyethylene or plastic that guards against moisture, 2) Paper board that gives strength and stability, and also can be printed over with colourful marketing information, 3) Polyethylene again that acts as an adhesive for the next layer, 4) Aluminium acts as a light, air and odour barrier, and prevents harmful bacteria, 5) Polyethylene which acts as an adhesive for the inner most layer, and 6) Food grade polyethylene which seals the flavour of the products.

Aseptic packaging material that is printed with Amul marketing information is stored in the inventory as large heavy rolls. These rolls are picked up by a worker using a pick and move lift and takes them to the aseptic packaging machines and loads the rolls on the feeder section of the APS section.

After loading, the operator takes a sample by cutting a piece from the packaging material to do lab test. APS unit works in a closed environment to facilitate a very high standard of hygiene. Workers use the disinfectant very frequently to keep their hands clean.

While packing material rolls in to meet processed aseptic milk the operator also changes an adhesive plastic tape that seals the sides of the packing material which takes a cylindrical shape on a later stage. This special kind of plastic material sits in between the two ends and on heating sticks them vertically. After the two ends stick, a rolling two side arm presses, shapes, seals the package horizontally after filling with milk, and cuts each package separately. This machine makes 7 packs per second, that is 25,200 packs per hour. This APS system is fully automated.

Samples of package that are taken from various points are tested for its like conductivity test for leak proof, stretch test for strength of joints. Also, boxes are kept under observation for four days before sending them to the market.

4.3 Outbound logistics

4. 3.1 Warehousing and inventory management

Amul has a partnership with Attar logistics Pvt. Ltd. to manage their warehousing and logistics [14], [15]. This company has some features that ensure safety like biometric attendance, CCTV cameras, anti-theft alarm, and GPRS software for online tracing of vehicles.

The milk packets from the APS are blow dried and a printer mark these with a date and batch number. A laser gun counts the number of packs. After this, the packs enter a serpent like buffer machine so that the milk packs are stored for 5-7 minutes without holding the continuous process. After storage, the packets move to the secondary packing system. These packs are then separated into blocks of 24. And moved by a lever gently to a carton packing station. A vacuum cup pulls a strong corrugated box and places it on a platform. The block of milk packs slides on top of the corrugated box and then it is wrapped around from all directions. A conveyer then takes it to the shrink- wrapping area for sturdiness. A machine wraps these boxes with polyethene and then these are passed through a hot tunnel which shrinks the polyethylene. A laser beam system controls the movement of the boxes and directs them how to board a lift gently. The lift takes these boxes to ASRS (Automated Storage and Retrieval System) [7].

The packed milk cartons are stacked nicely in the store room to be delivered to the market. The aseptic packed materials nicely packed in delivery cartons reach from all packing stations to a fully automatic modern storage system, fully controlled by the computers which decides where to store the pallets made with these cartons. The pallets are stacked over a 30 m high specially designed marked place by a robotic system which places and later retrieves these pallets. This is called an Automatic Storage and Retrieval System, which also chooses the pallets as per the demand from the racks. A robotic system then brings it to the delivery platform. A trained forklift operator lifts these and places them in insulated trucks. An external agency person keeps the count of the pallets that are loaded in each container. The milk cartons are placed in the truck with some space in between to allow air passage and thus uniform temperature for all unit of product. The trucks deliver the product onwards to over 1000 cities and towns across India. An external agency person keeps the count of the pallets that are loaded in each container [7]. 

4.3.2 Order fulfilment, shipping

Amul and National Dairy Development Board, in collaboration with railway Rail Milk Indian railways decided to use Rail Milk Tankers (RMT) to transport milk to neighbouring states. The rail tankers store more than 4 lakh litres of milk [7], [15]. Amul gold UHT milk is distributed to the consumers through Amul franchisee parlours, food services and online platforms [16].

Conclusions

Amul has a very well established system that manages its logistics activities, especially in case of milk which is an easily perishable commodity. But there are some novel technologies that can be adopted by Amul to make the whole system more efficient, effective, transparent, traceable, and sustainable. Amul has already created a mobile app for its member farmers, village dairy cooperative societies (VDCS), milk unions and its employees. Amul in partnership with IBM, already has private cloud and disaster recovery systems, and real-time insights and control. But Amul can further adopt better AI and machine learning for predictive maintenance, demand forecasting, inventory management, route optimisation, etc. [19]. Even though many operations such as the aseptic packaging section is fully automated, there are still sections towards the milk procurement area that needs more automation. For example farmers have to wait in long lines to handover their milk to the collection centre. A possible solution for this could be an additional feature in the app that allows farmers to make appointments. The app can also indicate busy hours to the farmers so that they can arrive at a less busy hour. Amul already uses solar water heaters to supply hot water for the requirements of the processing plant, and has done some works in constructing biogas plants in the farms for the farmers use. But more sustainable options like innovative packaging with lesser plastic layers such as signature evo from SIG, can be used [7]. Amul can improve their reverse logistics and recycling by placing reverse vending machines for tetra packs in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Kochi.

Overall Amul being one of the largest producers of milk in the world, hopefully would be able to adopt and make the best suited improvements in the near future. 

References

1. Amul. (2022). Organisation: Amul. Retrieved May 2023, from Amul website: https://amul.com/m/organisation

2. Amul TV. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/@AmulTheTasteofIndia/about

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4. Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amul#cite_note-amul.com-1

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5. Chunilala Purushotham & Co. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2023, from Chunilala Purushotham & Co.: https://www.cpdubai.com/product/amul-ghee/

6. Damodaran, H. (2018, March 12). Business Line. Retrieved May 2023, from The Hindu: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/columns/harish- damodaran/amuls-gen-next-farmers/article64537718.ece

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8. The Big Picture: A new churning. (2015, Jan Tuesday). The Indian Express.

9. Quality movement. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2023, from Amul dairy:

   https://www.amuldairy.com/qualitymovement.php

10.Singh, D. R. (2019, August). Pashudhanpraharee. Retrieved from

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determination-of-dairy-milk-price-on-the-basis-of-fat-snf-in-india/
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(2018). [Motion Picture].
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https://amul.com/files/pdf/Annual_Sustainability_Report_2022-23_Final.pdf

13. safety control. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2023, from Attar logistics Pvt. Ltd.: https://www.attarlogistics.com/safety.php

14. Inside Amul Warehouse | Attar Logistics (2021). [Motion Picture]. India. Retrieved May 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PbHhw93xW0s

15. Amul takes rail route to send milk in Maharashtra. (2018, July 18). Times of India.

16. B2B. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2023, from Amul: https://amul.com/m/b2b

17. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2023, from prompt AMCS: https://promptamcs.com/# 18. Milk Supply Chain of Modern Dairy Industry. (2017, June 1). Retrieved June

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(2020, December 8). The Economic Times. 

Conflicts and paradoxes in the food waste problem

What are the conflicts or paradoxes in the food waste problem and why these conflicts or paradoxes need to be resolved before being able to even consider the technical food waste problem?